Basic Ideas in Philosophy of Science

Philosophy of Science

Section I

Basic Ideas in Philosophy of Science

Chapter 1: Philosophy of Science

1. What is Philosophy?

The word ‘philosophy’ comes from the Greek word ‘philosophia’, which literally means ‘love of wisdom’. Philosophy is the study of general and fundamental problems, such as those connected with existence, knowledge, values, reason, mind, and language. It is a world view through which one looks at world, society, self and life in general. It provides a window in and through which one looks at everything else. It is the enquiry of wisdom which needs a natural enquiry and a moral enquiry. The main branches of Philosophy are Logic, Epistemology, Metaphysics, and Ethics.

2. What is Science?

Science is a body of empirical, theoretical, and practical knowledge about the natural world, produced by researchers making use of scientific methods, which emphasize the observation, explanation, and prediction of real world phenomena by experiment. In Subjective sense Science refers to the actual appearance of human intellect by which we arrive at conclusions, bring out theorems, explanations etc. In an Objective sense Science refers to the object of science as the subject of something. Science refers to the whole of Cognitive activities.

a. Etymological meaning of the term science

The word science comes from the Latin "scientia," meaning ‘to know’ or knowledge. Science means ‘knowledge gained by study’ to a ‘particular branch of study’.

b. Different meaning of the Term science

According to Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, the definition of science is "knowledge attained through study or practice," or "knowledge covering general truths of the operation of general laws, especially as obtained and tested through scientific method [and] concerned with the physical world. "Science is a logically ordered system of true or at leastprobably true, and universal statement concerning the essences, foundations, causes and finality of object in a definite field of knowledge with reference to the investigations, arguments and demonstrations upon which the conclusion are based.

c. The Characteristics of Science

i. Science is a system which is coherent, logical and has interconnectedness.

ii. It has a definite field of knowledge, There is a clear demarcation

iii. It is expressed in Universal terms.

iv. Science is concern with essence, foundations, causes and finality

v. Conclusions of science are reliable, though tentative.

vi. It deals with Nature, with society, and has got rules and norms.

vii. It has a special technical language and methodology

viii. It is based on Observations and experiment

3. What is Philosophy of Science?

The Word Philosophy of Science was coined in 1840 by William Whewell. The philosophy of science is concerned with the assumptions, foundations, methods and implications of science. It is also concerned with the use and merit of science and sometimes overlaps metaphysics and epistemology by exploring whether scientific results are actually a study of truth. Philosophy of science studies the world view of scientific theories and elaborates the broader implication. It elucidates various concepts in science like observation, evidence, law, theory and explanation etc. It studies the prejudices and pre disposition of scientist and the very language of science.

v Aristotle was the first philosopher of Science.

Chapter 2: Relevance of Philosophy of Science

1. Relevance in Contemporary Science Today

a. Philosophy of Science is a basic force that shapes our character and actions in a way that affects our day-to-day experience.

b. It can examine the coherence of concepts, frameworks and existing practices within any individual discipline

c. Science can give answer to mystery of nature and about space and time.

2. Relevance in for a student of Philosophy

a. The most important value of philosophy of Science is that it utilizes reasoning as the method of rational enquiry.

b. It helps us to widen our "world-view".

c. It helps a person to have critical analysis

3. Relevance in for a person in a the Religious/ Priesthood training

a. It helps a person to deepen the faith in God

b. It helps a person to have better relationship with people

c. It helps a person to tackle problems efficiently.

Chapter 3: History of Science and Philosophy of Science

1. What is History

The word ‘History’ is derived from the Greek word ‘historia’, meaning "inquiry, knowledge acquired by investigation". It is the discovery, collection, organization, and presentation of information about past events. History is a record of event taken place in particular space and time. It is always written from the powerful, rich, dominant and even male respective. It is an instrument to guide us in understanding the past and revive the historical consciousness of the society.

v Heraclitus is the father of History

2. What is History of science?

The history of science is the study of the historical development of human understandings of the natural world. History of Science is a branch of history which studies about the beginning growth and success of science. History of science gives us the information about the origin, growth, success, struggles and failures which Science or the state or religion encountered at a given time.

Relic: Any object that comes used in the past and become a source of information when a study or an experiment is performed on the object. Historians obtain information from two sources that is Primary sources (Newton’s Diary) and Secondary sources ( Newton’s report a century later.)

3. Why do we Need History of Science?

We need History of Science in order to

a. Realize the real picture of science

b. To realize the humble beginning of science

c. To make us learn a lot from our ancestors so that we will not be born ignorant

d. History of science provides case examples to be useful to philosophy

4. How are Philosophy of Science and History of Science Related

Lakatos said ‘History of Science is blind without philosophy of science and philosophy of science is empty without history of science”. The Philosophy of science and History of Science are both academic disciplines that encompass the philosophy of science and the history of science.Until the 18th and 19th centuries, there was no real distinction between scientist and philosopher, and many of the great scientist-philosophers of antiquity were also theologians.

Chapter 4: Scientific Methodolgy

1. What is Scientific Method

Scientific method refers to a body of techniques for investigating phenomena, acquiring new knowledge, or correcting and integrating previous knowledge. A Scientific method of inquiry must be based on gathering empirical and measurable evidence subject to specific principles of reasoning.The scientific method is the process by which scientists, collectively and over time, endeavor to construct an accurate (that is, reliable, consistent and non-arbitrary) representation of the world. It is a method to attain a scientific end.

2. What is Not a Scientific Method?

a. A Rigid adherence to one’s beliefs without justification is not a scientific method but tenacity.

b. Believing in something because Authority has said so is not a Scientific method and whose authority is based on books, individual, institute and tradition

c. A method which is based on Intuition which is not scientific

3. Basic steps in Scientific Methodology

a. Stating a Problem: Observation and description of a phenomenon or group of phenomena. Stating a Problem by asking right questions

b. Forming a Hypothesis: Formulation of a hypothesis to explain the phenomena

c. Observation and experiment:Use of the hypothesis to predict the existence of other phenomena, or to predict quantitatively the results of new observations.

d. Interpretation of Data:Performance of experimental tests of the predictions by several independent experimenters and properly performed experiments. The data have to be interpreted.

e. Drawing conclusion.

4. ‘Mental Devices’ used in Scientific Method

The scientific method is the foundation of modern science. It is a process for making observations, recording data, and analyzing data. Scientific method uses Logic, Classification, Comparison, Models and Mathematics to arrive at a conclusion of a particular thing.

a. Logic: Scientific method uses inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning to try to arrive at an objective truth. Inductive reasoning is the examination of specific instances to develop a general hypothesis or theory, whereas deductive reasoning is the use of a theory to explain specific results.

b. Classification: The various data have to be classified for easy access and to give meaning.

c. Comparison and Analogy: It helps to understand the problem at hand in a better way.

d. Model: It is a miniature representation of the work to be done

e. Mathematics: It is the soul of science

5. Two Major Methods Used in Scientific Science: Inductivism&Hypotheism

Inductivism:

The word Inductivism is credited to Francis Bacon. David Hume said about Inductivism as “that general statements (theories) that have to be based on empirical observations, which are subsequently generalized into statements which can either be regarded as true or probably true. In Inductivism, scientific research proceeds from observations to theories. Scientists begin with experiments, finding out what happens in specific cases. They then use the results of these experiments to develop general theories about what happens in all cases.

Hypothesism

The word ‘Hypothesis’ is derived from Greek word ‘hypotithenai’, meaning "to put under" or "to suppose". Hypothesis is and observation which depends on previous observations that cannot satisfactorily be explained with the available scientific theories. Hypotheism generates new, creative hypotheisis which is realistic. René Descartes is the father of Hypothesim.

Comparison between Inductivism and Hypotheism

Inductivism	Hypotheism
v Method of science is method of Induction.	v Method of science is method of Hypothesis
v Francis Bacon is father of Induction	v Rene Descartes is the father of Hypotheism
v It is rooted in Empiricism	v It is rooted in Rationalism
v Science must start from fundamental observation	v Science starts only when we go beyond observation
v It is Anti- Realism	v Realism

Live and Die in Fullness

Live and Die in Fullness

Reflecting on death will help us to live life better. Death for most people is a fearful, painful and an unwanted thing. Death is painful and fearful for those who have not realized the value of life and have not live life to its fullness. Death for most people means the physical death that is the departure of the soul from the body. However, death does not limit to the existence of matter but also death implies the spiritual, emotional or behavioural death. A coward can die many times while living. Dying while living is very painful, bitter and fearful and it is the cause of unwanted death to a person. Death is a natural phenomenon for those who are born. Dying while living is a common to people; it is not only the coward who faces death while living, but the way we deal with death matters. Coward will die while living and lead an unhappy life while a brave and determined person will face death and turn them to positive impact of life. Death of values at times helps people and at times destroys people.

Interview

The question that I ask them is, “what is your opinion about death and what is the secret that keeps you going in life?”

Below are some of the opinions I received from my friends.

1. Nanda Kishore

Nanda Kishore is a Hindu boy who is doing his CA (Articleship) in Mangalore. He is a pujari and a devotee of Sri Shi Raghaveshwara Bharati Mahaswamiji.

His view about death is;

“On the issue about death I completely agree with my Guruji's words. He once said, ‘Death is a gate from where either you come back as brand new, or you will reach your destination’. Death is not the end point I say. We faced death many times before and will be facing many times hereafter. Death just says, "Time up, you need to come again in a new name if you want to reach your destination" or "Congrats..!! You have done it, you need not come again". It is like a flight which will take off at a specified time, you need to finish all your work and get back to your place in that flight. This is not our first life; we can make it as a last one by achieving our Goal. We had life before birth, similarly we will be having life after death also. It is just to leave the body and to go to the other one. Just like you get a rickshaw to go to the bus stand from St Alloys and from there you get the bus to Bangalore, there you get train to your city. :):):) and sufferings are the blessings we get to purify our-self. It is like when we come to earth in this birth, we bring with us all our back profit and loss, just like our brought forward and carried forward. Whenever we get pleasure our profit goes down, and when we suffer, we reduce our loss. When both of our profit and loss get nullified and when we reach break even point we get the real happiness”.

Secret of life

It’s very simple; I surrender myself to the higher energy. This is the only way to lead our life peacefully. Take all the responsibility on your shoulders, as if you are the person who is responsible for everything; discharge your liability completely. And then once you finish, think that you are just the representative and are quit. Do not take any compliments; submit it to the higher energy (you can call it as God, Boss, or the superior). The secret of happy life is detachment my dear friend. Never attach yourself to the material things. Enjoy life but please be assured that your decedents are not disturbed by your lifestyle. That is the secret of life.

2. Gilbert Armstrong L. Marshillong

He was born on 22^nd October, 1987. He has just completed MA (Pol) from NEHU University, Meghalaya. He has recently cleared the NET Exam in 2011 and so now he is teaching in a College. He is from Jakhong village in Meghalaya State, India. He belongs to Catholic religion.

His view about death is;

“Yearn to ‘Befriend with life and death’’’

“People who know how to live know how to die and a people who know how to die know how to live. To live life to its fullness a person need to befriend with life and death. A person should live life and go through hurdles that pass our way. A person should not be afraid to die because it is a part of life. Practically all matter has an expiry date and so our body is a matter and so it has to die. Life is a gift to begin life on earth and death is an invitation to begin new life in heaven. We need to accept life by rejoicing when there is joy and happiness and to face and fight boldly when there are difficulties and suffering. The more we remove, guilt feelings, selfishness, hatred, greediness, loneliness and other vices we will be able to accept life better”.

Secret of Life

He said, “God, Parents, siblings and friends”, is the secret that keep him going in life. He said, “I pray, study and work keeping in mind the people whom I love and needed my help, I feel I am great in front of them”.

3. Sr. Banshailang Mawlong AC

Sr. Banshailang Mawlong is an Apostolic Carmel nun. She is from Mawlyndep village in Meghalaya State, India. She is teaching in a School in Andaman and Nicobar Island.

Her view about death is;

“For me death is a meeting face to face with God. The real judgment will take place when we die and with all my hope for all that I have suffered and all the sacrifice I have made I am looking forward for that day. The day when we really meet god face to face that is in heaven. I have offered myself to God and to serve people so that I will die happily and with great fulfilment in life. Jesus is my spouse and my total union with my lover will be in the next life and not in this life. Death is not a fearful thing for me because I know that when I die, I am going to my beloved.

Secret of Life

She said, “The only thing which keeps me going is that one day God will judge us according to his judgement. All my hope in this world is nothing but eternal life in the world to come. That is how I live my life hopefully”.

Personal Reflection

What is the secret of my life? What keep me going in life?

The force that keeps me going in life is God and the goal that keeps me going in life is the desire to give back to God, through people, what I have received from Him. The question that keeps striking me is what can I give today? The more I can love and give my life will be better satisfied. I might not be able to give gold or silver at all times but I can always give a smile that cheer the hearts, the song that tune a person, the love that strengthened relationship, the touch that can feel the warmth and the words that can console and guide others. Life is given freely and so I need to share life with others freely. Love is given lovingly so I have to share the live to others lovingly. When I frown, criticize, hate, disrespect and think ill of others, I am doing it to myself because before it affects others it has already affected me first. When I love, help and smile at others it has affected me first. True happiness in life depends much in our inner attitudes.

My understanding about Death

Life is a gift of God to me and when the expiry date comes God will take back this gift to Him. My life is only a journey. Whether I live on this earth or die from this earth it will not bother me because my life will continue to exist with God. Just as I embrace life happily so also will I embrace death happily. I will live my life as if today is the first day, the best day and the last day in my life.

I don’t deny that I don’t want dead or I am scared of death. We all want to escape death if it is possible. Now I realize that if I want to escape death I should try to escape birth. I cannot escape from birth and so I cannot escape from death because it is a gift and design of God. Death should therefore be accepted meaningfully and joyfully. If I know that I am going to die soon and given the chance to spent my last days I would sing the song I compose, I would dance the rhythm I like, I would like to play the song l like, I would listen to the music I enjoy, I would complete to write the article or the book I have started, I would eat and drink with friends, I would meet my old friends and make new friends, I would read and write poems, I would mail and chat with my friends, I would continue to play the games and make fun with my friends and I would love and give more to people whatever I have. In brief I would continue to be what I am and do what I am supposed to do. However smile, love, give and create memories would dominate my way of life.

Life comes from God and has to go back to God. Death is a gift to begin a new life in heaven and death is not the end of life. When we go through birth, suffering and death we will experience resurrection and fullness in life. When we learn how to die we lean how to live. When we accept death as a friend we affirm life. We will not be afraid of death when we have no regrets, live an authentic and a genuine life, when we have something to die for and when we accept ourselves as we are. When we are not afraid of death we will begin to life a happy life. We need to have hope, faith and trust so that death will not be a painful thing but and acceptance of a new life. Unless we befriend death we cannot relish life. Life as if we never die and die as if we never lived.